A Quest in the Middle East Gertrude Bell and the Making of Iraq Book Review

English writer, traveller, political officeholder and archaeologist

Gertrude Bell
Gertrude Bell in 1909, visiting archaeological excavations in Babylon
Born	Gertrude Margaret Lowthian Bell (1868-07-fourteen)14 July 1868 Washington New Hall, Canton Durham, England
Died	12 July 1926(1926-07-12) (aged 57) Baghdad, Mandatory Iraq
Nationality	British
Education	Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford
Occupation	Traveller, political officeholder
Era	Victorian, Edwardian – 1900s
Known for	Writer, traveller, political officer, archaeologist, explorer, cartographer in Syrian arab republic-Palestine, Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, and Arabia
Parent(due south)	Sir Hugh Bell Mary Bong (née Shield)[a] [1]

Gertrude Margaret Lowthian Bell, CBE (14 July 1868 – 12 July 1926) was an English writer, traveller, political officer, ambassador, and archeologist^[two] who explored, mapped, and became highly influential to British royal policy-making due to her cognition and contacts, built upwards through extensive travels in Syria-Palestine, Mesopotamia, Asia Pocket-sized, and Arabia.^[3] Along with T. Eastward. Lawrence, Bong helped support the Hashemite dynasties in what is today Jordan every bit well every bit in Republic of iraq.

She played a major role in establishing and helping administer the mod state of Republic of iraq, using her unique perspective from her travels and relations with tribal leaders throughout the Middle East. During her lifetime she was highly esteemed and trusted past British officials and exerted an immense amount of power. She has been described as "one of the few representatives of His Majesty's Authorities remembered by the Arabs with annihilation resembling amore".^[4]

Early on life [edit]

Bell was built-in on 14 July 1868 in Washington New Hall – now known equally Dame Margaret Hall – in Washington, County Durham, England to a family whose wealth ensured her educational activity and enabled her travels.^[v] Her personality was characterised by energy, intellect, and a thirst for adventure that shaped her path in life. Her grandfather was the ironmaster Sir Isaac Lowthian Bell, an industrialist and a Liberal Member of Parliament, in Benjamin Disraeli'southward second term. His office in British policy-making exposed Gertrude at a young age to international matters and most likely encouraged her curiosity for the world, and her later involvement in international politics.^[vi]

Bell's mother, Mary Shield Bell, died in 1871^[7] while giving nativity to a son, Maurice (afterward the tertiary Baronet). Gertrude Bell was only iii at the fourth dimension, and the decease led to a lifelong close relationship with her father, Sir Hugh Bell, 2nd Baronet, a progressive capitalist and mill owner who fabricated certain his workers were well paid and cared for.^{[8] : 33–34} Throughout her life, Gertrude consulted on political matters with her father, who had also served for many years in various governmental positions.

Some biographies suggest the loss of her mother caused underlying childhood trauma, revealed through periods of depression and risky behaviour. Only when Gertrude was seven years sometime, her father remarried, providing her a stepmother, Florence Bell (née Olliffe), and eventually, 3 one-half-siblings. Florence Bell was a playwright and writer of children'south stories, besides as the author of a study of Bong manufacturing plant workers. She instilled concepts of duty and decorum in Gertrude and contributed to her intellectual development. Florence Bong's activities with the wives of Bolckow Vaughan ironworkers in Eston, near Middlesbrough, may have helped influence her step-daughter's subsequently stance promoting didactics of Iraqi women.^[9]

Gertrude Bell received her early education from Queen'southward Higher in London and then later at Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford University,^[10] at the age of 17. History was one of the few subjects women were allowed to study, due to the many restrictions imposed on them at the time. She specialised in modern history, and information technology was said that she was the offset adult female to graduate in Modern History at Oxford with a first class honours degree, a feat she achieved in but two years.^{[11] : 41} Eleven people graduated that year. 9 were recorded because they were men, and the other two were Bell and Alice Greenwood.^[12] However, the two women were not awarded academic degrees. It was not until 1920 that Oxford treated women equally with men in this respect.^{[13] [14]}

Bong never married or had children. She befriended British colonial ambassador Sir Frank Swettenham on a visit to Singapore with her brother Hugo in 1903 and maintained a correspondence with him until 1909.^[15] She had a "brief but passionate thing" with Swettenham post-obit his retirement to England in 1904.^[sixteen] She besides had an unconsummated thing with Maj. Charles Doughty-Wylie, a married man, with whom she exchanged dearest letters from 1913 to 1915.^{[17] : fourteen–17} After his expiry in 1915 during the Gallipoli Entrada, Bell launched herself into her piece of work.

Travels and writings [edit]

Bell's uncle, Sir Frank Lascelles, was British minister (similar to administrator) at Tehran, Persia. In May 1892, after leaving Oxford, Bell travelled to Persia to visit him. She described this journey in her volume, Persian Pictures, which was published in 1894. She spent much of the adjacent decade travelling around the world, mountaineering in Switzerland, and developing a passion for archaeology and languages. She had get fluent in Standard arabic, Persian, French and German, and also spoke Italian and Ottoman languages. In 1899, Bong again went to the Middle East. She visited Palestine and Syrian arab republic that year and in 1900, on a trip from Jerusalem to Damascus, she became acquainted with the Druze living in Jabal al-Druze.^[18] She travelled beyond Arabia six times during the adjacent 12 years.^[eighteen]

Betwixt 1899 and 1904, she climbed a number of mountains, including the La Meije and Mont Blanc, and recorded 10 new paths or first ascents in the Bernese Alps in Switzerland. I Alpine peak in the Bernese Oberland, the 2,632 grand (8,635 ft) Gertrudspitze, was named after her after she and her guides Ulrich and Heinrich Fuhrer first traversed it in 1901. However, she failed in an attempt of the Finsteraarhorn in August 1902, when inclement weather including snow, hail and lightning forced her to spend "forty eight hours on the rope" with her guides, clinging to the rock face in terrifying conditions that nearly toll her her life.^[19]

She published her observations of the Middle Due east in the book Syria: The Desert and the Sown (1907, William Heinemann Ltd, London). In this book she described, photographed and detailed her trip to Greater Syria'southward towns and cities such equally Damascus, Jerusalem, Beirut, Antioch and Alexandretta. Bell's vivid descriptions revealed the Arabian deserts to the western world. In March 1907, Bell journeyed to the Ottoman Empire and began to work with Sir William Chiliad. Ramsay, an archeologist and New Attestation scholar. Their excavations in Binbirkilise were chronicled in A Thousand and I Churches.^[20]

In 1907, they discovered a field of ruins in northern Syrian arab republic on the e banking concern of the upper course of the Euphrates, forth a steep slope of the former river valley. From the ruins, they created a programme and described the ramparts: "Munbayah, where my tents were pitched – the Arabic name means only a loftier-altitude form – was probably the Bersiba in Ptolemy'southward listing of city names. Information technology consists of a double rampart, situated on the river bank."^[21]

Bell was a founder member of the Women's National Anti-Suffrage League in 1908. She was the first honorary secretary of the League and founded its northern branch.^{[22] [23]}

In January 1909, Bell left for Mesopotamia. She visited the Hittite city of Carchemish, photographed the relief carvings in Halamata Cavern, mapped and described the ruin of Ukhaidir, and travelled on to Babylon and Najaf. Back in Carchemish, she consulted with the two archaeologists on site. One of them was T. E. Lawrence, assistant to Reginald Campbell Thompson. In 1910, Bell visited the Munich exhibition Masterpieces of Muhammadan Fine art. In a letter of the alphabet to her stepmother, she recounts how she had the research room to herself and spoke to some Syrians from Damascus who were part of the ethnographic section of the exhibition.^[24]

In 1913, she completed her last and near arduous Arabian journey, travelling about 1800 miles from Damascus to the politically volatile Ha'il, back upward across the Arabian peninsula to Baghdad and from there back to Damascus. She was only the second foreign woman afterward Lady Anne Blunt to visit Ha'il and, arriving during a catamenia of detail instability, was held in the city for xi days.^{[11] : 218–219}

In 1924 she invited Assyriologist Edward Chiera to conduct archaeological excavations in ancient Nuzi, about Kirkuk, Iraq, where hundreds of inscribed dirt tablets had been discovered and deciphered, at present known as the Nuzi Tablets.^[25]

In 1927, a twelvemonth later Bell'south death, her stepmother Florence Bong published two volumes of Bell'southward collected correspondence written during the twenty years preceding World War I.^[i]

War and political career [edit]

At the outbreak of World War I, Bell's request for a Eye Eastward posting was initially denied. She instead volunteered with the Scarlet Cantankerous in French republic.

Later, she was asked by British Intelligence to get soldiers through the deserts, and from the World War I menstruation until her death she was the only adult female holding political power and influence in shaping British regal policy in the Middle E. She often acquired a team of locals which she directed and led on her expeditions. Throughout her travels Bell established close relations with tribe members across the Center Eastward. Additionally, beingness a woman gave her access to the private quarters of wives of tribe leaders, and thus to other perspectives and functions.

Cairo and Basra [edit]

In November 1915, she was summoned to Cairo to the nascent Arab Bureau, headed by General Gilbert Clayton. She as well again met T. E. Lawrence.^{[8] : 160–161}

Both Bong and Lawrence had attended Oxford and earned a Start Class Honours in Mod History, both spoke fluent Standard arabic and both had travelled extensively in the Arabian desert and established ties with the local tribes before World War I. Renowned archaeologist and historian Lt. Cmdr. David Hogarth recognised the value of Lawrence and Bell's expertise and upon his recommendation first Lawrence, then Bong, were assigned to Army Intelligence Headquarters in Cairo in 1915 for war service.

Arriving in Feb 1916, she did non, at first, receive an official position, merely instead helped Hogarth set about organising and processing her own, Lawrence's and Capt. W. H. I. Shakespear'due south data near the location and disposition of Arab tribes. They could then be encouraged to bring together the British confronting the Ottoman Empire. Lawrence and the British used the data in forming alliances with the Arabs.

On 3 March 1916, Gen. Clayton abruptly sent Bell to Basra, which British forces had captured in November 1914, to advise Principal Political Officer Percy Cox regarding an surface area she knew better than any other Westerner. Cox found her an office in his headquarters, where she was employed for the two days per week she was not at Armed forces GHQ Basra.^[26] She drew maps to help the British regular army reach Baghdad safely. She became the simply female political officer in the British forces and received the title of "Liaison Officer, Contributor to Cairo" (i.e. to the Arab Bureau where she had been assigned). She was St. John Philby'southward field controller, and taught him the finer arts of backside-the-scenes political manoeuvering.

I went out last week along the light railway 25 miles into the desert it's the Nasariyeh Railway - ...it was so curious to travel 50 minutes by rail and discover...General Maude, our new army commander, has just arrived. I've made his associate..."^[27]

Armenian genocide [edit]

While in the Middle Eastward, Gertrude Bell reported on the Armenian genocide. Contrasting the killings with previous massacres, she wrote that earlier killings "were not comparable to the massacres carried out in 1915 and the succeeding years."^[28] Bell likewise reported that in Damascus, "Ottomans sold Armenian women openly in the public market."^[29] In an intelligence report, Bell quoted a statement past a Turkish prisoner-of-war:

The battalion left Aleppo on three February and reached Ras al-Ain in twelve hours....some 12,000 Armenians were concentrated under the guardianship of some hundred Kurds...These Kurds were called gendarmes, but in reality mere butchers; bands of them were publicly ordered to take parties of Armenians, of both sexes, to various destinations, merely had underground instructions to destroy the males, children and old women...One of these gendarmes confessed to killing 100 Armenian men himself...the empty desert cisterns and caves were also filled with corpses...No man can ever think of a adult female's body except equally a matter of horror, instead of allure, after Ras al-Ain."^[xxx]

Creation of Iraq [edit]

Later on British troops took Baghdad on x March 1917, Bong was summoned by Cox to Baghdad^{[8] : 274–276} and given the title of "Oriental Secretary." As the dismantling of the Ottoman Empire was finalised by the end of the state of war in belatedly January 1919, Bell was assigned to conduct an analysis of the situation in Mesopotamia. Due to her familiarity and relations with the tribes in the area she had strong ideas about the leadership needed in Republic of iraq. She spent the next ten months writing what was later on considered a masterly official written report, "Self Determination in Mesopotamia".^[31] The British Commissioner in Mesopotamia, Arnold Wilson, had different ideas of how Iraq should be run, preferring an Arab government to exist nether the influence of British officials who would retain existent control, as he felt, from feel, that Mesopotamian populations were not yet fix to govern and administer the country efficiently and peacefully.

On xi October 1920, Percy Cox returned to Baghdad and asked her to continue equally Oriental Secretarial assistant, acting every bit liaison with the forthcoming Arab regime. Bell essentially played the office of mediator betwixt the Arab government and British officials. Bell often had to mediate between the various groups of Iraq including Shias in the southern region, Sunnis in key Iraq, and the Kurds, mostly in the northern region, who wished to be autonomous. Keeping these groups united was essential for political balance in Iraq and for British purple interests. Republic of iraq not only independent valuable resource in oil just would human action every bit a buffer zone, with the aid of Kurds in the north as a standing regular army in the region to protect against Turkey, Persia (Iran), and Syria. British officials in London, especially Churchill, were highly concerned about cut heavy costs in the colonies, including the price of quashing tribal infighting. Another important projection for both the British and new Iraqi rulers was creating a new identity for these people so that they would place themselves every bit one nation.^[32]

British officials quickly realised that their strategies in governing were calculation to costs. Iraq would exist cheaper as a self-governing state. The Cairo Conference of 1921 was held to make up one's mind the political and geographic structure of what afterward became Iraq and the modern Heart East.^{[8] : 365–369} Meaning input was given past Bong in these discussions thus she was an essential part of its creation. At the Cairo Briefing Bell and Lawrence highly recommended Faisal bin Hussein, (the son of Hussein, Sherif of Mecca), former commander of the Arab forces that helped the British during the war and entered Damascus at the culmination of the Arab Revolt. He had been recently deposed by French republic as Male monarch of Syrian arab republic, and British officials at the Cairo Conference decided to make him the showtime King of Iraq. They believed that due to his lineage equally a Hashemite and his diplomatic skills he would exist respected and have the ability to unite the various groups in the state. Shias would respect him because of his lineage from Muhammad. Sunnis, including Kurds, would follow him because he was Sunni from a respected family. Keeping all the groups nether control in Iraq was essential to remainder the political and economic interests of the British Empire.

Upon Faisal'southward arrival in 1921, Bell advised him on local questions, including matters involving tribal geography and local business. She besides supervised the selection of appointees for cabinet and other leadership posts in the new government. Referred to by Arabs as "al-Khatun" (a Lady of the Court who keeps an open eye and ear for the benefit of the State), she was a confidante of Male monarch Faisal of Republic of iraq and helped ease his passage into the role, amid Iraq'due south other tribal leaders at the first of his reign. He helped her to found Baghdad'southward Iraqi Archaeological Museum from her own small artefact collection and to establish The British School of Archaeology, Iraq, for the endowment of excavation projects from proceeds in her volition. The stress of authoring a prodigious output of books, correspondence, intelligence reports, reference works, and white papers; of recurring bronchitis attacks brought on past years of heavy smoking in the company of English and Arab cohorts; of bouts with malaria; and finally, of coping with Baghdad'southward summer heat all took a price on her health. Somewhat frail to outset with, she became emaciated.

Historians^{[ who? ]} accept said that more recent troubles in Republic of iraq arose from the political boundaries which Bell conceived. Her reports, however, signal that bug were foreseen, and both Bell and her British colleagues believed that there were limited permanent solutions for calming the divisive forces at work in that role of the world. Her colleagues also insisted that the Kurds exist denied a homeland, and that a proportion of them should be incorporated into Iraq, a partitioning that Bong did not oppose. The division of the Kurds between Republic of iraq, Syria and Turkey led to their oppression in all iii countries, and Bell endorsed the use of forcefulness against the Kurds. "Mesopotamia is not a civilised state," Bell wrote to her father on 18 Dec 1920.^{[8] : 413–419 [33] [34]}

Throughout the early 1920s Bell was an integral part of the administration of Republic of iraq. The new Hashemite monarchy used the Sharifian flag, which consisted of a black stripe representing the Abbasid caliphate, white stripe representing the Umayyad caliphate, and a greenish stripe for Fatimid Dynasty, and lastly a red triangle to set across the 3 bands symbolising Islam. Bell felt it essential to customise it for Republic of iraq by adding a gold star to the pattern.^{[17] : 149} Faisal was crowned king of Iraq on 23 August 1921, but he was non completely welcomed. Using Shi'ite history to proceeds support for Faisal, during the holy month of Muharram, Bell compared Faisal'south inflow in Baghdad to Husayn, grandson of Muhammad. However, there was little enthusiasm for Faisal when he landed at the Shia port of Basra.^[33]

She did non find working with the new king to be easy: "You may rely upon 1 thing — I'll never appoint in creating kings again; it'due south also great a strain." Faisal attempted to rid himself of the control of British advisors, including Bell, with but limited success.^{[35] [33]}

1921 conference [edit]

Bong, Cox and Lawrence were among a select group of "Orientalists" convened by Winston Churchill to nourish a 1921 Briefing in Cairo to determine the boundaries of the British mandate (east.one thousand., "the British Partitions") and nascent states such equally Iraq.^{[8] : 365–369} Gertrude is supposed to have described Lawrence as being able "to ignite fires in cold rooms".^[36]

Throughout the conference, she, Cox and Lawrence worked tirelessly to promote the establishment of the countries of Transjordan and Iraq to be presided over by the Kings Abdullah and Faisal, sons of the instigator of the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire (ca. 1915–1916), Hussein bin Ali, Sharif and Emir of Mecca.^{[8] : 365–369} Until her death in Baghdad, she served in the Iraq British High Commission informational group at that place.

Bell opposed the Zionist movement, she wrote that she regarded the Balfour Declaration with "the deepest mistrust" and that "It'south similar a nightmare in which yous foresee all the horrible things which are going to happen and can`t stretch out your hand to prevent them".^{[37] [38]} In a letter to her mother she described the Balfour Declaration as "a wholly artificial scheme divorced from all relation to facts and I wish it the sick-success it deserves".^[39]

Mark Sykes, the British diplomat responsible for the Sykes–Picot Agreement, was not addicted of her.^[40]

National Library of Republic of iraq [edit]

In November 1919, Bell was an invited speaker at a coming together for the promotion of a public library in Baghdad, and subsequently served on its Library Commission, as President from 1921 to 1924. The Baghdad Peace Library (Maktabat al-Salam) was a private, subscription library, but in c.1924 was taken over by the Ministry of Education and became known as the Baghdad Public Library (or sometimes as the General Library). In 1961, this became the National Library of Republic of iraq.

Baghdad Archaeological Museum [edit]

Gertrude Bong'south first love had been archaeology, thus she began forming what became the Baghdad Archaeological Museum, later renamed the Iraqi Museum. Her goal was to preserve Iraqi culture and history which included the important relics of Mesopotamian civilizations, and keep them in their country of origin. She besides supervised excavations and examined finds and artifacts. She brought in extensive collections, such as from the Babylonian Empire.^[32] The museum was officially opened in June 1926, shortly earlier Bell's death. After her death, at the Emir's suggestion, the right wing of the Museum was named as a memorial to her.

Last years [edit]

When Bell briefly returned to Britain in 1925, she faced family issues and ill health. Her family'due south fortune had begun to decline due to the onset of mail-World State of war I strikes by workers in Britain and economic depression in Europe. She returned to Baghdad and soon developed pleurisy. When she recovered, she heard that her younger half blood brother Hugh had died of typhoid.

On 12 July 1926, Bell was discovered dead, of an apparent overdose of sleeping pills. There is much argue on her death, but it is unknown whether the overdose was an intentional suicide or adventitious since she had asked her maid to wake her.^[32] In her final years she became acquainted with Kinahan Cornwallis who later wrote an introduction to the posthumously published book The Arab War, Confidential Information for Full general Headquarters from Gertrude Bell, Being Despatches Reprinted from the Cloak-and-dagger "Arab Bulletin".

She was buried at the British cemetery in Baghdad'south Bab al-Sharji district.^[41] Her funeral was a major event, attended by large numbers of people including her colleagues, British officials and the Male monarch of Iraq. It was said Male monarch Faisal watched the procession from his private balcony as they carried her bury to the cemetery.^{[17] : 235}

Legacy and tributes [edit]

Contemporary [edit]

An obituary written past her peer D. G. Hogarth expressed the respect British officials held for her. Hogarth honoured her by maxim,

No woman in recent time has combined her qualities – her taste for arduous and dangerous run a risk with her scientific interest and knowledge, her competence in archæology and art, her distinguished literary gift, her sympathy for all sorts and status of men, her political insight and appreciation of human values, her masculine vigour, difficult common sense and practical efficiency – all tempered past feminine charm and a virtually romantic spirit.^[42]

Modernistic [edit]

Bell is remembered in Iraq in the 21st century. The British diplomat, travel writer and onetime Member of Parliament Rory Stewart wrote:

When I served as a British official in southern Iraq in 2003, I oft heard Iraqis compare my female person colleagues to "Gertrude Bell." Information technology was generally casual flattery, and yet the instance of Bell and her colleagues was unsettling. More than than ten biographies take portrayed her every bit the ideal Arabist, political analyst, and administrator.

—Rory Stewart^[43]

Stewart notes that Bong was "both more lively and more honest" than political statements in his time.^[43] He quotes six examples of her writing, the shortest of which is "No one knows exactly what they do want, least of all themselves, except that they don't want us."^[43] He quotes Bell's colleague, T. E. Lawrence, equally saying that she was "not a practiced judge of men or situations",^[44] and observes that "If there was no ideal solution, even so, there were withal clear mistakes. Bell should never have acquiesced in the inclusion of the Kurdish-dominated province of Mosul in Iraq."^[44] However, Stewart praises her 1920 White Paper, comparing it to General Petraeus's Report to Congress on the State of affairs in Iraq.^[44]

Film [edit]

• In 1992, Bell was portrayed by Gillian Barge in the ITV television flick A Dangerous Man: Lawrence After Arabia.
• In 2015, Werner Herzog released Queen of the Desert. The film chronicles much of Bell's life. She is portrayed by Nicole Kidman.^[45]
• In 2016, the documentary Messages from Baghdad, based on Bell's and her contemporaries' writings, was released. The film was directed and produced by Zeva Oelbaum and Sabine Krayenbühl. The quotations from Bong's letters were read by Tilda Swinton.^{[46] [47]}

Posthumous tributes [edit]

Bell'southward work was specially mentioned in the British Parliament, and she was fabricated a Commander of the Order of the British Empire.^{[ citation needed ]}

A stained-glass window dedicated to her retentivity, made past Douglas Strachan, was erected in St Lawrence's Church, East Rounton, North Yorkshire. It depicts Magdalen College, Oxford, and Khadimain, Baghdad.^[48] The inscription reads:

This window is in remembrance of Gertrude Versed in the learning of the eastward and of the west Servant of the state Scholar Poet Historian Antiquary Gardener Mountaineer Explorer Lover of nature of flowers and of animals Incomparable friend sister daughter.^[49]

In 2019, entomologists studying wild bees in Saudi Arabia described a new genus which they named to honour Bell, as genus Belliturgula, known from the species Belliturgula najdica from central Saudi Arabia.^[50]

Museum [edit]

In 2016, a campaign was launched to transform Bell's family estate, Crimson Barns, into a memorial and museum. The family were patrons of the Arts and crafts movement in England, and the home, located in Redcar, features wallpaper past William Morris. Although the building is Course Two* listed, information technology had not been maintained in recent years. Turning the building into a memorial to Bong is partially the upshot of a 2015 exhibition virtually her at the Bang-up North Museum in Newcastle. The exhibition moved to the Kirkleatham Museum in Redcar after its run in Newcastle.^[51]

The Gertrude Bell archive, held past Newcastle University, was added to the UNESCO Memory of the World Programme in 2017.^{[52] [53]}

Comics [edit]

In the 2010s, a team from Newcastle University released a comic version of Bell'southward life. John Miers was the cartoonist.^{[54] [55]}

Selected works [edit]

• Bell, Gertrude (1897). Poems from the Divan of Hafiz. London.
• Bell, Gertrude (1907). The Desert and the Sown.
• Bell, Gertrude (1910). Mountains of the Servants of God.
• Bell, Gertrude (1911). Amurath to Amurath. New York, Dutton.
• Bell, Gertrude (1914). The Palace and Mosque of Ukhaidir: A Study in Early Mohammadan Architecture. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
• Bong, Gertrude (1961). Gertrude Bell: From Her Personal Papers 1914–1926. London: Ernest Benn Ltd.
• Bell, Gertrude (2015). A Adult female in Arabia: The Writings of the Queen of the Desert. London: Penguin.
• Gertrude Lowthian Bell; Gertrude Bong (1919) [1907]. The Desert and the Sown: Travels in Palestine and Syria. W. Heinemann. p. 340.
• Gertrude Bong (1911, rep.1924) From Amurath to Amurath, complete text with illustrations.
• Works by Gertrude Bell at Projection Gutenberg Australia The letters of Gertrude Bong, selected and edited past Lady Bell, 1927 (obviously text and HTML)
• The Arabian Report
• Arab Message

Notes [edit]

1. ^ Daughter of John Shield of Newcastle-on-Tyne.

References [edit]

1. ^ ^{a b} Bong, Gertrude (1927). Bell, Florence (ed.). The Letters of Gertrude Bong. London.
2. ^ Bell, Gertrude Lowthian (October 2000). O'Brien, Rosemary (ed.). Gertrude Bong: The Arabian Diaries, 1913-1914 . ISBN9780815606727.
3. ^ "Bell, Gertrude Margaret Lowthian". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/30686. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
4. ^ Meyer, Karl E.; Brysac, Shareen B. (2008), Kingmakers: The Invention of the Modern Middle East, New York: W.W. Norton & Co., p. 162
5. ^ Del Testa, David Due west., ed. (2001). "Bell, Gertrude". Authorities Leaders, Armed forces Rulers, and Political Activists. Westport, Connecticut: Oryx Printing. p. 20. Archived from the original on 13 March 2020. Retrieved 28 August 2017.
6. ^ O'Brien, Rosemary, ed. (2000), Gertrude Bong: The Arabian Diaries, 1913–1914, Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press
7. ^ "Bell (Gertrude) Annal - Athenaeum Hub".
8. ^ ^{a b c d east f one thousand} Howell, Georgina (2008). Gertrude Bong: Queen of the Desert, Shaper of Nations (Paperback ed.). Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN978-0-374-53135-5.
9. ^ O'Brien, pp. v–half-dozen
10. ^ "LMH, Oxford - Prominent Alumni". Retrieved 20 May 2015.
11. ^ ^{a b} Howell, Georgina (2007). Queen of the Desert: The Boggling Life of Gertrude Bell (Paperback ed.). Pan Macmillan. ISBN978-one-4472-8626-4.
12. ^ "Greenwood, Alice Drayton". Oxford Lexicon of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/59037. (Subscription or Great britain public library membership required.)
13. ^ Sultan, Mena (viii October 2019). "October 1920: Women granted full membership of Oxford Academy". The Guardian . Retrieved 2 December 2020.
14. ^ Judge, Ben (vii October 2020). "7 October 1920: Oxford Academy allows women to graduate". MoneyWeek . Retrieved 2 December 2020.
15. ^ Barlow, Henry S. (1995). Swettenham. Kuala Lumpur: Southdene. pp. 654–5.
16. ^ Barlow, Henry S. (1997). "Malaysia: Swettenham's Legacy". Asian Affairs. 28 (3): 333. doi:ten.1080/714857151.
17. ^ ^{a b c} Lukitz, Liora (3 March 2006). A Quest in the Middle East: Gertrude Bell and the Making of Modern Iraq. I.B.Tauris. ISBN978-1-85043-415-3 . Retrieved 23 September 2013.
18. ^ ^{a b} "Gertrude Bell and the Birth of Iraq". theava.com. 15 November 2011. Archived from the original on 23 October 2004. Retrieved six December 2011.
19. ^ Berry, Helen (September 2013). "Gertrude Bell: charlatan, diplomat, mountaineer and anti-suffragette". BBC History Magazine. BBC. Retrieved 16 May 2017 – via cloudfront.internet.
20. ^ Cohen, Getzel 1000.; Sharp Joukowsky, Martha (2006). Breaking Basis: Pioneering Women Archaeologists. Academy of Michigan Press. p. 167. ISBN978-0-472-03174-0.
21. ^ Alfred Werner Maurer. Mumbaqat 1977 written report on the resources of the University of Saarbrücken, undertaken by the German Oriental Society earthworks. Philologus Verlag, Basel, 2007.
22. ^ Fitzgerald, Kitty (Nov 2009). "Suffrage, but not for me". Prospect . Retrieved 28 October 2021.
23. ^ Brownish, Eleanor. "The Anti-Suffrage Anomaly: Gertrude Bong and the Question of Privilege". Retrieved 28 October 2021.
24. ^ "Gertrude Bell on the 1910 Masterpieces of Muhammadan Art Exhibition in Munich".
25. ^ Edward Chiera, Joint Expedition with the Iraq Museum at Nuzi (5 vols., Paris and Philadelphia, 1927-1934)
26. ^ Bell, Gertrude (1927). Bong, Florence (ed.). "To Herbert Bakery, Basrah, June 25, 1916". The Letters of Gertrude Bong, Volume 1. London. p. 379. He is going to give me a room in his office where I shall become two or three mornings a week... the other days I shall go on working at GHQ....Sir Percy's function is a quarter of an hour away.
27. ^ Bong, Gertrude (1927). Bell, Florence (ed.). "To Florence Bong, Baronial 27, 1916". The Letters of Gertrude Bell. London. ane: 386. He is going to give me a room in his office where I shall become two or three mornings a calendar week... the other days I shall go along working at GHQ....Sir Percy's office is a quarter of an hour abroad.
28. ^ Townshend, Charles (2011). Desert Hell: The British Invasion of Mesopotamia. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Printing. p. 494. ISBN978-0674061347.
29. ^ Rich, Paul J., ed. (2008). Iraq and Gertrude Bong's The Arab of Mesopotamia. Lanham: Lexington Books. p. 144. ISBN978-1461633662.
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Sources [edit]

• Bell, Lady Florence, ed. (1927). The Letters of Gertrude Bell. Vol. two vols. London: Ernest Benn Ltd.
• Hogarth, David Grand. "Obituary: Gertrude Lowthian Bell". The Geographical Periodical 68.iv (1926): pp. 363–368. JSTOR. 28 October 2009.
• Meyer, Karl E.; Brysac, S. B. (2008). Kingmakers: The Invention of the Modernistic Heart East. W. Due west. Norton. ISBN978-0-393-33770-9. pp 157–92.
• O'Brien, R., ed. (2000). Gertrude Bell: The Arabian Diaries, 1913–1914. Syracuse University Printing. ISBN978-0-8156-0672-7.
• Satia, Priya (2008). Spies in Arabia: The Bang-up State of war and the Cultural Foundations of Uk'due south Covert Empire in the Middle East. Oxford University Printing. ISBN9780199715985.

Further reading [edit]

• Adams, Amanda (2010). Ladies of the Field: Early Women Archaeologists and Their Search for Adventure. Greystone Books Ltd. ISBN978-one-55365-641-8.
• Bodley, R. V. C.; Hearst, L. (1940). Gertrude Bell. Macmillan. ISBN978-i-258-44101-2.
• Howell, Georgina (2006). Gertrude Bell: Queen of the Desert, Shaper of Nations. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN978-1-4299-3401-5. ; also issued every bit Daughter of the Desert: the remarkable life of Gertrude Bong. Macmillan, 2006. ISBN i-4050-4587-6

--- (paperback edition, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2008) ISBN 0-374-53135-viii

• Lukitz, Liora (2004). "Gertrude Bell". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Printing. 4.
• Lukitz, Liora (three March 2006). A Quest in the Middle East: Gertrude Bong and the Making of Mod Iraq. I.B.Tauris. ISBN978-1-85043-415-3 . Retrieved 23 September 2013.
• Wallach, Janet (1996). Desert Queen. Bantam Doubleday Dell. ISBN978-0-307-74436-iv.
• Winstone, H. V. F. (2004). Gertrude Bell. Barzan Publishing Company. ISBN978-0-9547728-0-2.

External links [edit]

corderowarme2002.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gertrude_Bell

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